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History of Technology

Measuring technological progress

Many sociologists and anthropologists have created social theories social change and cultural. Some, like Lewis H. Morgan, Leslie White, and Gerhard Lenski said that technological progress should be the main factor driving the development of human civilization. Morgan concept of three major stages of social evolution (savagery, barbarism and civilization) can be divided by technological milestones, like fire, bow, and Ceramics in the wild now, the domestication of animals, agriculture, and metallurgy into barbarism and the alphabet and writing time in the era of civilization.

Instead of specific inventions, White decided that the measure to judge the evolution of culture was energy. For White "function primary culture "is" to exploit the power and control "white distinction between the five stages of human development.: In the first, people use energy of their own muscles. In the second, the energy use of domestic animals. In the third, using the energy of plants (agricultural revolution). In the fourth, they learn to use energy resources: coal, oil and gas. In the fifth, they harness nuclear power. White introduced a formula P = E * T, where E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of the effectiveness of the technical factors that use energy. In his own words, "culture evolves as the amount of energy used per capita per year is greater, or that the effectiveness of the instrument to put energy into the work increases. "Astronomer Russian Nikolai Kardashev Kardashev extrapolated his theory to create scale, which categorizes energy advanced civilizations.

Lenski takes a more modern approach and focuses in the information. The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the configuration of the natural environment) of a given society has, the more advanced is. There are four stages of human development, based on developments in the history of communication. In the first phase, information is passed through the genes. In the second, when the increased sensitivity of human beings, can learn and transmit information through the experience. In the third man to start using the signs and develop logic. In the fourth, can create symbols, develop language and writing. Advances in communications technology means progress in economic system and political system, distribution of wealth, social inequality and other spheres of social life. It also distinguishes companies based their level of technology, communication and economy:

hunters and gatherers

simple agricultural

advanced agricultural

Industrial

special (like fishing societies).

Finally, in late 1970, sociologists and anthropologists, like Alvin Toffler (author of The Future Shock), Daniel Bell and John Naisbitt discusses the theories of post-industrial enterprises, arguing that the current era of industrial society is coming to an end and services and information are increasingly important and the property industry. Some of the more extreme visions of post-industrial society, especially in fiction are remarkably similar to visions of post-singularity and its surroundings.

In periods and geography

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Principles of technology

Agriculture preceded the writing of history of technology.

Olduvai stone technology (Olduwan) 2.5 million years (scrapers slaughter of animals dead)

Acheulean stone technology 1.6 million years (ax)

Building fire and manipulation, used since the Paleolithic erectus, Homo possibly as early as 1.5 billion years

(Homo sapiens sapiens – the anatomy of human beings modern humans appeared about 200,000 years.)

Clothing may be 100,000 years ago.

Stone tools used by Homo floresiensis, possibly 100,000 years ago.

Ceramic ca. 25,000 BC

The domestication of animals, ca. 15,000 BC

Arco, sling ca. Ninth millennium BC of Christ

microliths ca. Ninth millennium BC

Copper Ca. 8000 a. C.

Agriculture and Plough ca. 8000 a. C.

ca wheel. 4000 a. C.

Gnomon ca. 4000 a. C.

Editorial AC systems. 3500 a. C.

Bronze ca. A. 3300 C.

Sal

trolley ca. 2000 a. C.

Iron ca. 1500 BC C.

Sundial CA. 800 BC

Glass ca. 500 a. C.

ca catapult. 400 a. C.

AC horseshoe. 300 a. C.

Clip first centuries AD

Stone Age

A variety of stone tools

During the Stone Age, all Human beings have a lifestyle that involves limited use of tools and few, if any, permanent settlements. The main technologies first, then were related to survival, hunting and food preparation in this environment. Fire stone tools and weapons, and clothing has undergone technological advances of great importance during this period. Cultures of the Stone Age developed the music, and participated in organized warfare. A subset of the Stone Age humans technology developed sea worthy vessel with the pendulum, which leads to a migration eastward through the Malay Archipelago, across the ocean India to Madagascar and through the Pacific Ocean, which requires knowledge of ocean currents, weather, sailing, celestial navigation, and star maps. The beginning of the Stone Age or Palaeolithic is described as Mesolithic. The first is usually used to describe the stone age in areas with glacial limited impact. The older stone, during which the foundations of agricultural technology have been developed, is called the Neolithic period. During this period, polished stone tools are made from a variety of hard rock and stone, jade, jadeite green, mainly through exposure to work quarries, but later the gemstones were processed by the excavation of underground tunnels, the first step in mining technology. Polished axes were used for logging and the establishment of crops, and were so effective that remain in use for bronze and iron appeared.

Although cultures Paleolithic left a written record, the transition from nomadic life to settlement and agriculture can be inferred from a number of archaeological features. This evidence including old tools, cave paintings and other works of prehistoric art, such as the Venus of Willendorf. The man is also provide direct evidence, either by the examination of the bones, and the study of mummies. Although concrete evidence is limited, scientists and historians have been able to make important conclusions about the lifestyle several villages and prehistoric culture, and the role of technology in their lives.

Copper and Bronze Age

At the end of the bronze age, sword or dagger.

Developed in the Stone Age to the Bronze Age after the Neolithic revolution. The Neolithic Revolution led to radical changes in agricultural technologies, including the development of agriculture, animal domestication and the adoption of permanent settlements. Combination of these factors made the development fusion of metals, copper and bronze, later, an alloy of tin and copper are the materials of choice, although polished stone tools continued used for a considerable time because of their abundance compared with the less common metals (especially tin).

This trend apparently began technology in the Fertile Crescent, and spread outward over time. Note that these events are, and not yet universal. The system three years does not describe precisely the history of technology groups outside Eurasia, and does not apply to everyone in the case of some isolated populations, like people Spinifex, Sentinelese, and several tribes of the Amazon, which still use the technology of the Stone Age, and have not developed agriculture and metal technology.

Iron Age

iron ax, dating from the Iron Age in Sweden.

The age of iron involved the adoption of technology foundry. In general, it replaced the bronze, and has produced tools that were stronger and cheaper to manufacture than the equivalent of bronze. In many cultures of Eurasia, Iron Age was the last major step before the development of written language, but again this was not the case everywhere. Steel was not possible because mass production to high oven temperatures were necessary, but the steel can be produced by forging wrought iron Catalan reduce the carbon content in a controllable manner. iron ore were much more common than copper or tin. In Europe, strong large hill were built either as a refuge in times of war, or even as permanent settlements. In some cases, existing strengths of the Bronze Age has been expanded and enlarged. The pace of clearing land using iron axes became more efficient, providing more land for agriculture to feed the growing population.

1000 BC In 500 BC, Germanic tribes had a Bronze Age civilization, while the Celts were in the iron age at the time of the Hallstatt culture. Their cultures have clashed with the military and agricultural practices of the Romans, the Europeans they have won for Romans to adopt technological advances.

Ancient Civilizations

Main article: Ancient Technology

Was the growth of ancient civilizations that produced the greatest advances in technology and engineering, the progress that has prompted other companies to adopt new of life and governance.

The Egyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as ramp construction processes. Indus Civilization, located in a rich region is notable for its early implementation planning urban sanitation. Ancient India was also at the forefront of marine technology panel found in Mohenjo-Daro, is a sailing craft. Indian construction and architecture, called "Vaastu Shastra" suggests a deep understanding of materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation.

The Chinese made many discoveries of the earliest known and evolution. Major technological contributions China include early seismic detectors, matches, paper, cast iron plow, the multi-tube seed drill, the suspension bridge, the parachute, natural gas as fuel the compass, the raised relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, the South Pointing car and gun powder.

An example of the unity aeolipile before steaming

Greek and Hellenistic engineers invented many technologies and improving existing technologies. In particular, the Hellenistic period saw an increase in technological ingenuity, aided by a climate of openness to new ideas, the royal patronage of the main mechanical philosophy and the creation of the Library of Alexandria and its close association with adjacent Museion. Contrary to the generally anonymous inventor of past centuries, the spirits ingenuine as Archimedes, Philo of Byzantium, Heron and Ctesibius still known by name to posterity.

innovations in ancient Greek in particular is marked in mechanical technology, including the revolutionary invention of the water mill that is the driving force behind the first man not designed to build on the work of the muscles (not the veil). Apart from its pioneering use of hydropower, the inventors Greeks were also the first to experiment with wind power (see windwheel Heron) and even created when the steam engine (the aeolipile) opens completely new possibilities to exploit the natural forces that come all the potential to be exploited only in the industrial revolution. Special emphasis to the functioning of mechanical devices has become newly developed train at right angles and screws.

The water wheel compartments, here passed its version was invented in the Hellenistic period

Former agriculture, as in any previous period In modern times the dominant mode of production and subsistence, and irrigation methods have been greatly advanced by the invention and widespread use of a series of unknown characteristics of pumping water, such as vertical waterwheel, the wheel compartment, the water turbine, Archimedes screws, a suction pump, the bucket chain and the chain of marijuana, the power of the pump, the pump suction pump double acting piston pump may chain.

In music, the body of water, invented by Ctesibius and improved thereafter, formed the first instance of a keyboard instrument. Retention time, the introduction of entry and the hourglass mechanization of field and the pointer, the application of a feedback system and the escape mechanism and replaced hourglass early departure.

The famous Antikythera mechanism, a type of analog computer work with a differential gear, refinement and show astrolabe large astronomical science.

Greek engineers were also the first to design controllers such that vending machines, ink suspended, sinks and doors, especially toys, but also many new useful mechanisms, and camshafts.

In other areas, ancient Greek inventions include the catapult and the crossbow gastraphetes in war, hollow castings of bronze metallurgy, diopter for surveying, the lighthouse infrastructure, central heating, the tunnel dug from both ends for scientific calculations, the athletics track of the ship, dry dock and plumbing. Horizontal and vertical transport steps resulting from the invention of the crane, winch, and the barrow the odometer.

Other techniques and new items creation were spiral staircases, chain drive, pliers and showers.

Pont du Gard in France, a Roman aqueduct

The Romans developed the intensive agriculture and sophisticated technology complements the existing iron work, created laws that provide for individual ownership, the advanced technology of masonry Stone, advanced road construction (only surpassed in the century 19), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving machines and more as the reaper gala helped raise productivity in many sectors of the economy Romano. Roman engineers were the first to build monumental arches, amphitheaters, aqueducts, public restrooms, arch bridges true, ports, dams and reservoirs, vaults and domes through its massive empire. Roman notable inventions include the book (Codex), blown glass and concrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the concrete the Romans had been made especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, until today.

Technical skills the Incas and the Maya were large, even by the standards of today. An example is the use of coins weighing more than a tons of stone placed as a whole so that even a leaf can fit in the middle of the cracks. The people used irrigation canals and drainage, agriculture is very effective. While some argue that the Incas were the first inventors of hydroponics, agricultural technology was still in the land office, at an advanced stage. Although the Maya had no technology of metallurgy or the wheel, developed writing systems and complex astrological and created sculptures in stone and stone. Like the Incas, the Mayans also had the control of agricultural technology and sufficiently advanced construction. Throughout this period most of this construction was carried out by women, men believed the Maya civilization that women were responsible for creating new things. The main contribution of the Aztec state was a system of communications between the conquered cities. In Mesoamerica, no pets Shooting for transport (nor, therefore, wheeled vehicles), roads were designed to travel on foot, like the Inca and Mayan civilizations.

technologies medieval and modern

Medieval Europe

counterweight catapult medieval (Reconstruction)

Main article: Medieval technology

European technology in the Middle Ages may be best described as a symbiosis of traditio and innovatio. Although medieval technology was long regarded as a step backwards in the evolution of Western technology, sometimes deliberately intended modern writers to end the church as an alternative to scientific progress (see For example, the flat earth myth), a generation of medievalists from all over the American historian of science Lynn White insisted the 1940 character many medieval innovative techniques. contributions are of medieval origin, such as mechanical clocks, spectacles and vertical wind mills. medieval ingenuity has been represented the invention of seemingly discrete objects such as watermarks or functional button. In navigation, the foundation at the age of exploration was asked more later by the introduction of asparagus rudders and sails herd, the dry iron compass and the astrolabe.

Significant progress has also been made in military technology with the development of plate armor, crossbows steel counterweight catapults and cannons. Perhaps the best known are the Middle Ages for its architecture Inheritance: Although the invention of the vault and pointed arch gave rise to the Gothic style in place, the omnipresent medieval fortifications time has almost proverbial title of the age "of the castle.

Muslim Agricultural Revolution

Main articles: Muslim Agricultural Revolution, Inventions in the Islamic world, and Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineers

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In the eighth century, the medieval Islamic world witnessed a fundamental transformation of the agricultural revolution known as the "Muslim House", "Arab revolution agricultural "or" Green Revolution ". Due to the global economy established by Muslim traders across the Old World during the" Age Discovery Afro-Asian "or" Pax Islamica ", which allowed the spread of many cultures, plants and farming techniques between different parts the Islamic world, and adaptation of crops, plants and techniques spread across the Islamic world in Islamic countries, which normally would not be able to grow these crops. The diffusion of many crops during this period led to increased mechanization of agriculture have led to major changes in the economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the active population, related industries, cooking and nutrition, clothing and many other aspects of life in the Islamic world.

engineers Muslims in the Islamic world are responsible for numerous innovative uses hydropower industry, the first industrial uses of tidal power, wind energy and oil, industrial complexes and (tiraz in Arabic) of large size. Industrial uses of water mills have been widely used since century on day 8. A variety of industrial plants have been developed in the Islamic world, including the mills, flour mills, grain, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, sticks, steel mills, sugar mills and windmills. In the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world these industrial plants in operation, al-Andalus and North Africa Middle East and Central Asia. Muslim engineers also developed crankshafts and water turbines.

A significant number of inventions were produced by scientists and engineers for Muslims this time, including inventors such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, Taqi al-Din, and in particular to Jazari. Some events of the Islamic Golden Age include coffee, hard soap, shampoo, nitric acid, still, valves, pistons, padded surgical catgut, windmill, inoculation, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, the quartz crystal, modern look, rockets explosives and incendiary devices.

Renaissance

Main article: Renaissance Technology

Dome of Florence Cathedral

The design of a flying machine (c.1488) by Da Vinci

The period was marked by profound technological advances like the printing press, the perception linear, the Patent Law, the domes of double hull or Bastion fortresses. Notes Portable Renaissance artist-engineers like Leonardo da Vinci and give a good Taccola vision technology then known and applied mechanics. Architects and engineers were inspired by the structures of ancient Rome, and men like Brunelleschi created the great dome of Florence Cathedral thereafter. Received one of the first patent issued to protect an ingenious crane, which aims to increase the masonry large stone on top of structure. Military technology is developing rapidly with the widespread use of the crossbow and artillery increasingly potent as city-states of Italy were usually in conflict with another. powerful as the Medici family were customers high Arts and Sciences. Renaissance science has led to the scientific revolution, science and technology have started a cycle of mutual development.

Age of Exploration

Main article: Age of Exploration

The yacht (or Nau Carrack) has enabled the era of exploration of European colonization of the Americas, played by Francis Bacon The New Atlantis. Basque pioneers like da Gama, Cabral, Magellan and Christopher Columbus explored the world in search of new trade routes for their products and contacts with Africa, India and China, which has shortened the journey by land through compared with traditional channels. Also re-discovered the Americas do everything. They produced new maps and graphics that have explored the addition of the following browsers with more confidence. The voyage was difficult, but in general, because of the problem length and the absence of accurate clocks. European powers rediscovered the idea of the code of civil war, lost since the time of the ancient Greeks.

Revolution Industrial

Main article: Industrial Revolution

A Watt steam engine

The Iron Bridge

The industrial revolution Britain is characterized by changes in the fields of textile manufacturing, mining, metallurgy and transport by the steam engine of growth. Above However, the revolution was fueled by cheap energy in the form of coal produced in increasing amounts of resource abundance in Britain. Coal made resulted in the blast furnace coke and gypsum in much larger quantities than before, and a series of structures that could be created, as the iron bridge. cheap coal industry means that was no longer limited by the Water the plants of conduct, even if it continues as a valuable source of power. The steam engine helped to drain the mines in order to reserve coal could be more accessible, and coal production has increased. The development of the steam locomotive at high pressure is possible, and transport revolution followed.

Century 19

The rocket remains

The 19th century saw remarkable developments in transportation, construction and technology communication in Europe, especially Great Britain. The ship that had existed since the beginning 18th century engine, has been practically applied to two steamships and railways. The railway line built first goal opened between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830, Robert Stephenson's Rocket locomotive is one of the first locomotives work used on the line. Telegraph also implemented technology developed in the 19th century to help manage the railways safely.

Other technologies have been explored for the first time, including the incandescent bulb. The Portsmouth Block Mills was doing metal knuckles ships first took place machines instances of the era of mass production. Machines used by engineers to manufacture other machines began in the first decade of the century, in particular by Richard Roberts and Joseph Whitworth. Steamboats were finally fully armored and was instrumental in opening up Japan and China for trade with the West. mechanical calculation was invented by Charles Babbage, but has no success. The second industrial revolution of the late 19 th century saw a rapid development of chemical, electrical products oil, steel and technology-related research is very structured.

Century 20

Moon landing

century 20 technology developed rapidly. communications technology, transportation technology, general education and the application of scientific method and increased spending on research have contributed to the advancement of science and modern technology. Thanks to gains directly related to scientific research and military development, including electronic computer technology, could have developed as fast as they did in part because of the war. Radio, radar and sound recording technologies were key principles that have paved the way for telephone, fax and magnetic data storage. Energy and technology improved engine has also been extensive, including nuclear energy, developed after the Manhattan Project. Transportation rockets: more work took place in U.S. (Goddard), Russia (Tsiolkovsky) and Germany (Oberth). Using computers and advanced research laboratories, scientists have modern recombinant DNA.

The National Academy of Engineering, Voting experts established the following ranking of the most important technological developments of the 20th century:

Electrification

Car

Map

Water supply and distribution

Electronics

Radio and TV

mechanized farming

Computers

Phone

Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Roads

Spaceship

Internet

Images

Appliances

Health Technology

Oil and technology Petrochemical

Laser and fiber optics

Nuclear Technology

Materials Science

Century 21

The Mars Exploration Rovers have provided large amounts of information through the operation beyond the estimated life of the original NASA.

Article Home: 2000 in science and technology

In the 21 st century, technology is developing rapidly, especially in electronics and biotechnology. Broadband access to Internet has become commonplace in developed countries, as well as connecting computers at home and mobile music libraries phones.

The investigation continues in quantum computers, nanotechnology, bioengineering, nuclear fusion (ITER and DEMO show) advanced materials (eg reinforced armor) supersonic combustion (with railgun and high beam energy for military use) superconductivity, the memristor, and green technologies, such as alternative fuels (eg fuel cells, plug-in hybrid cars) and more efficient LEDs and solar cells.

Understanding the physics of particles also has plans to expand the particle accelerator projects such as the project's Large Hadron Collider's largest science in the world and as ANTARES neutrino detectors. Theoretical Physics is currently considering proposals such as quantum gravity theory M theory superstrings and loop quantum gravity.

spacecraft are also being developed, including in the Constellation project (see Orion and Ares V). The telescope James Webb Space try to identify the first galaxies and the exact location of the solar system in our galaxy, using the infrared spectrum. The finished product is the ISS will provide an intermediate platform for space missions and experiments in zero gravity. Despite the difficulties and criticisms, Plan of NASA and ESA mission to Mars in the early 2030.

By technology

History of biotechnology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of biotechnology

Be incorporated into the main article:

Chronology of technology in agriculture and food

Hunter-gatherers

Agriculture

Food Science

History of Agricultural Sciences

Garden history

Biotechnology (Calendar, etc)

Sushi History

The history of tea in China

History of Civil Engineering

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History Civil engineering and construction history

To be incorporated:

Civil engineering

Architecture and Construction

Bridges, ports, tunnels, dams

surveying instruments, maps, cartography, urban engineering, water supply and sanitation

Media History

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of Communication

To be incorporated:

Communications

Systems writing

Telecommunications

History of Mobile Phones

History of Animation

Broadcasting history

History of radar

Radio history

Film

Radio

Internet

History Informatics

Article: History of hardware

History of the hardware before 1960

History of computing hardware (1960sresent)

History of computer hardware in Soviet Bloc countries

History of Computing

History of operating systems

History of software engineering

History of programming languages

History of artificial intelligence

History Interface GUI

Internet History

History of the World Wide Web

History of computer and video games

History consumer technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of consumer technology

To be incorporated:

Timeline of lighting technology

History of textiles and clothing

History of Science Materials

Family and Consumer Sciences

Knitting History

Lensmaking History

History of Presidency

History the umbrella

Manufacturing

History of Electrical Engineering

This section requires expansion.

Article Home: History of Electrical Engineering #

To be incorporated:

History of U.S. Public lighting

History Energy Technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of Power

To be incorporated:

Energy (history, human use, See also)

History of Coal Mining

History of construction machinery perpetual

Timeline of steam power

Timeline of hydrogen technologies

Chronology of alcohol fuel

Timeline of nuclear fusion

History of Science Materials

This section requires expansion.

Article Home: History of Science Materials

To be incorporated:

Timeline of materials technology

Metallurgy

Materials and Processing

History of measurement

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of measurement

To be incorporated:

Time in U.S. history

Timeline of time measurement technology

History of Medicine

Main article: History of Medicine

This section requires expansion.

History of military technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of war

To be incorporated in the main article:

Military History # Evolution Technology

Military History Articles Category: History of specific technologies

History of Technology nuclear

Main article: History of nuclear technology #

Manhattan Project

Atomic Age

Nuclear tests

Nuclear arms race

History of Science and Technology

This section requires expansion.

Item: History of Science and Technology

History of telescopes

Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology

Timeline of microscope technology

Technology timeline of particle physics

Technology timeline at low temperature

Chronology of technology to measure temperature and pressure

History of transport technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of Transportation

To be incorporated in the main article:

Chronology of Motor Automotive Technology

Timeline of photography technology

Timeline of rocket technology and missiles

Chronology of Communication Technology

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